How electoral systems work: majoritarian, proportional and mixed systems, and the referendum

An electoral system is the set of rules that converts voters' ballots into seats in a legislature or into offices. There are three main families worldwide: majoritarian (majority/plurality) systems, proportional representation (PR), and mixed systems that combine the two. The choice of system determines how proportionally votes translate into seats. (Source: ACE Electoral Knowledge Network — Electoral System Design.)

Majoritarian systems: the most votes win

The most common majoritarian method is plurality, or First-Past-The-Post (FPTP). One member is elected per district; the candidate with the most votes wins, even with less than 50%. It is used in the US House of Representatives, the UK, Canada and India. Its advantages are simplicity and clear local representation; its drawbacks are that results can be disproportional and that many "wasted votes" arise. (Source: ACE; Electoral Reform Society.)

The two-round (runoff) system

In a two-round system, if no candidate wins an absolute majority (over 50%) in the first round, a second round is usually held between the top two candidates — guaranteeing the winner a majority. The classic example is the French presidential election. (Source: ACE; Wikipedia — "Two-round system.")

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Proportional representation (PR)

In a proportional system seats are allocated in proportion to parties' vote share: a party with about 30% of the vote gets about 30% of the seats. An electoral threshold is usually set to exclude very small parties — for example 5% in Germany. Mathematical methods convert votes into seats: highest-averages methods (D'Hondt, slightly favouring larger parties; Sainte-Laguë, fairer to smaller ones) or largest-remainder methods. (Source: ACE; Electoral Reform Society — German states.)

Mixed systems

Mixed systems combine majoritarian and proportional parts. In Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP) the party-list seats are awarded compensatorily, so the overall result comes out proportional — Germany is the classic example. In a parallel system (Mixed-Member Majoritarian) the majoritarian and PR parts are counted separately with no compensation, so it is only semi-proportional. (Source: ACE Electoral Knowledge Network.)

Presidential, parliamentary systems and the US Electoral College

In a presidential system the executive (the president) is elected separately from the legislature; in a parliamentary system the government is drawn from and accountable to the parliament. The US is a special case — the president is elected not directly but through an "Electoral College": there are 538 electoral votes in total, 270 are needed to win, and in most states a "winner-take-all" rule applies (Maine and Nebraska are exceptions). (Source: U.S. National Archives — About the Electoral College.)

What is a referendum?

A referendum (plebiscite) is a direct vote by citizens on a specific question, law or proposal; rather than electing a representative, voters answer "yes" or "no" to the question itself. Referendums can be mandatory (required by law) or optional (triggered by petition or initiative); a minimum turnout threshold (quorum) is sometimes required. (Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica — "Referendum and initiative.")

The core principles of a free election

A credible election rests on universal and equal suffrage and the secret ballot — enshrined in the OSCE's 1990 Copenhagen Document (paragraphs 7.3 and 7.4). An independent election commission administers the vote, while independent observers — for example OSCE/ODIHR missions — assess whether the process meets international standards. (Source: OSCE/ODIHR — Election Observation Handbook.)

The example of Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan is a presidential republic; the president is elected by popular vote for a seven-year term. The parliament is the bicameral Oliy Majlis: the Senate (65 members) and the Legislative Chamber (150 deputies), with a five-year term. After the 2023 constitutional referendum and the amendments to the Election Code adopted on 18 December 2023, the Legislative Chamber is elected under a mixed system, applied for the first time in the election of 27 October 2024: 75 seats by the majoritarian (FPTP) method in single-mandate districts and 75 seats proportionally by closed party lists. The quota for women among each party's candidates was raised from 30% to 40%. (Source: IFES — Uzbekistan Parliamentary and Local Elections, 2024.)

Conclusion

An electoral system is a set of rules that can produce very different outcomes from the same votes. Majoritarian systems are simple and produce a clear winner, but results can be disproportional; proportional systems translate vote share into seats more fairly; mixed systems sit between the two. A referendum, by contrast, is not about electing a representative but about answering a specific question directly.